Stephen was considered one of the greatest of the medieval Archbishops of Canterbury. Stephen was an English Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Archbishop of Canterbury between 1207 and 1228. He was consecrated by the Pope at Viterbo on 17th June 1207. He supported the barons in the struggle with King John. At a council of churchmen at Westminster on 25th August 1213 certain barons were invited to read the charter of Henry 1 and called for its renewal. Stephen’s energetic leadership and the barons’ military strength forced John to grant his seal to Magna Carta -15 June 1215 on Runnymead in Windsor… Stephen is believed to be the one who divided the Bible into the standard modern arrangement of chapters.

The British nationality Act of 1948 gave citizens of the UK and Colonies status and the right of settlement in the UK. This resulted that between 1948=1970 nearly half a million people moved form the Caribbean to Britain which faced sever labour shortages after WW11. These immigrants were later referred to as the Windrush generation. because many of them had come to the UK on the ship called HMT Empire Windrush. The only official records of many ‘windrush’ immigrants when they had originally come to the UK were the landing cards which were collected when they disembarked from ships in UK ports. Over subsequent decades these cards were routinely used by British immigration officials to verify dates of arrival for borderline immigration cases. Any one from the Commonwealth, who arrived before 1973 was granted an automatic right to remain, unless they left for more than 2 years. For the next 40 years anyone in that category were never given or asked to provide documentary evidence of their right to remain. In 2009 landing cards were earmarked, by the Labour government , for destruction, as part of a broader clean up of paper records. It was implemented in 2010 by the incoming coalition government. Whistleblowers and retired immigration officers warned managers there would be a problem- these cards were the only record of their arrival. Theresa May was Home Secretary when the hostile environment policy was introduced in October 2012. The idea was to reduce UK immigration figures promised in the 2010 Conservative Manifesto. (See hostile environment policy) In 2018 we had the Windrush scandal. People were wrongly detained, denied legal rights,lost jobs or homes, passports confiscated, denied medical care, threatened with deportation. At least 83 cases cases were wrongly deported -many of those affected had been born British subjects and had arrive in the UK before 1973. These were part of the 'Windrush generation. Since then a hardship scheme has been set up by the Home Office Those classified as illegal immigrants were to be compensated scheme. Very little of the £200 -£570 million set aside has been paid up -just £46,795 ( See Hardship scheme) On 19th March 2020 the Windrush Lessons Learned Review concluded that the Home Office showed an inexcusable ’ ignorance and thoughtlessnes’ and what had happened had been ’ foreseeable and avoidable’. (See W L L Review) November 2020 the Equality and Human Rights Commission said the Home Office had broken the law by failing to obey public-sector equality duties by not considering how the policies affected black members of the Windrush generation. Dexter Bristol and Paulette Wilson are 2 examples of how the ‘Windrush generation’ were seriously let down.

Alfred the Great was the king of th e West Saxons from 871-886 and king of the Anglo-Saxons c.886-899. He is venerated as a saint by some Christian traditions. The Anglican community venerate him as a Christian hero with a feast day or commemoration on 26th October. He is often depicted in stained glass windows in C of E parish churches. Alfred was the youngest son of King AEthelwulf. Three of his brothers AEthelbald. AEtheberht and AEthelred, reigned in turn before him. After ascending the throne he spent several years fighting Viking invasions. In 878/9 he had a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington. (He did not win all the battles) With the Vikings he created Danelaw in the North of England. He saw the Viking leader. Guthrum converted to Christianity. He became the dominant ruler in England Alfred had a great love of the church. As a child he had made the difficult journey to Rome to be blessed by the Pope. As king he now turned to rebuilding of civilisation and religion among his people. The Danes had destroyed nearly all th churches and schools in the land. He restored communications with Rome and invited scholars and monks from the Europe and Ireland to come and help in the revival of learning in England. He encouraged the building of churches, monasteries and schools. Alfred studied and translated into Anglo-Saxon the Psalms. He also translated from Latin into Old English certain works that were regarded at the time as providing models of ideal Christian kingship and ‘most necessary for all men to know.’ From his followers he won the title ‘Protector of the Poor’. Bishop Asser of Wales was set the task of writing the king’s biography - he emphasised Alfred’s positive aspects. He presented Alfred as the embodiment of the ideal, but practical, Christian ruler. By the time of the Reformation Alfred was seen as a pious Christian who promoted the use of English rather then the Latin He was given the epithet as ‘the Great’ by writers in the 16th century not by his contemporaries. He reigned for 30 years. He died aged just 50.King Alfred was never canonised (although HenryV1 asked Pope EugeneIV in 1441 to canonise him). History Today published an article The Most Perfect Man in History- I have enclosed most of the article. I desire to live worthily as long as I lived, and to leave after my life, to the men who should come after me, the memory of me in good works Alfred’s translation of passage from* Consolation of Philosophy* by Boethius Source used Wikipedia

William was born during the reign of Elizabeth 1 (1558-1603) and beheaded during the reign of Charles 1 (1625-1649). William was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by Charles 1 in 1633. and was a key advocate of his religious reforms. He was a highly effective parliamentarian and a key adviser ad policy-maker. He was bishop of Bath and Wells, then London before becoming Archbishop of Canterbury i in 1633 He was a firm believer in episcopalianism -the rule by bishops.* Laudianism refers to liturgical practices designed to enforce uniformity within the C of E as outlined by Charles 1. He was accused of Arminianism - favouring doctrines of the historic church prior to the Reformation. He was opposed to Calvinism. The Long Parliament of 1640 accused Laud of treason. Impeached in the the Grand Remonstrance of 1641 and was imprisonment in the Tower of London. In 1644 he was brought to trial which ended without a verdict. Parliament took up the issue and eventually passed a bill of attainder , under which Laud was beheaded on Tower Hill on 10 th of January 1645. He was buried in the chapel of St. John’s College, Oxford. This was towards the end of the First English Civil War (1642-6) Charles 1 towards the end of his life admitted he had put too much trust in William and warned his son not to rely on anyone else’s judgment. William was born in Reading, Berkshire. Source Wikipedia.

Frederick Douglass (1818-1895) was an abolitionist, civil rights activist, feminist and advocate of Social justice. He travelled to Britain in 1845 for 19 months, lecturing against slavery in the USA. Frederick was born on a plantation in Talbot County. He was born a slave. His birth name was Frederick Bailey. he did not know who was his father or the exact date of his birth. He later picked 14th February as his birthday and estimated he was born in 1818. Aged 7 he was sent to live at the Wye House plantation. His mother died when he was 10. Eventually he went to Baltimore to serve the Auld family. Sophia Auld started to teach him how to read. It was against the law and her husband her from teaching him. Frederick was an intelligent young man and taught himself how to read and write by observing others and watching white children. He read in newspapers about slavery, He taught others to read which got him into trouble and he was moved to another farm where he was beaten by the slave owner to break his spirit. In 1838 he escaped. He disguised himself as a sailor and carried papers to show he was a free black seaman. On 3rd September he boarded a train for the north. 24 hours later he arrived in New York a ‘free’ man. He married Anna Murray and took the surname of Douglas. They settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts. There he met abolitionists - people who wanted to abolish slavery. He became an excellent speaker on the subject and became famous but feared of being captured and returned to slavery. In 1845 he travelled to Ireland and Britain lecturing against slavery in the USA. He became embroiled in controversies due to his electrifying capacity as an oratory and performer. He returned to the USA a free man, British abolitionists purchased his legal freedom. He also spoke about Women’s Rights. He attended the first ever women’s rights convention at Seneca falls, New York in 1948. During the Civil War 1961-6 he fought for the rights of black soldiers. When the Soth announced they would execute or enslave any captured black soldier he insisted that President Lincoln should respond- he responded by threatening to execute like for like. Frederick also sought equal pay and treatment for black soldiers. He wrote an autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, It became a best seller, He later wrote 2 more books about his life. Frederick died on 20th February 1895, aged 77 (?) from either a heart attack or stroke. His legacy lives on in his writings and monuments named after him. NOTE This is just a simple summary. There are 38 pages on Frederick Douglas on Wikipedia giving far more detail. Sources used Wikipedia Biography for Kids

Rosa Parks is best known for refusing to move to the back of the bus. She was an American civil rights activist. She came from Montgomery where her young pastor was Martin Luther King. She lived to be 92. She was laid in state in the rotunda of the U.S. capital. She was the first woman and only the second Black person to receive the distinction, Source used Encyclopedia Britannica

Rowland Hill was an English teacher, inventor and social reformer. He campaigned for a comprehensive reform of the postal system… he is usually credited with originating the basic concepts of the modern postal service, including the invention of the postage stamp. He started to take an interest in postal reforms in 1835 Hill’s pamphlet Post Office Reform;Its importance and Practicability was submitted to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Thomas Spring Rice on 4th January 1817. It was then circulated privately. The postal service was mismanaged, wasteful, expensive and slow. It had become inadequate for the needs of an expanding commercial and industrial nation. It stated costs could be reduced if postage were prepaid by the sender. Proposing an adhesive stamp to indicate pre-payment of postage. 1840 was the first year of the Penny Post. In May 1840 the world’s first adhesive postage stamps were distributed. Rowland continued at the Post Office until the Conservative Party won the 1841 General Election . In July 1842, amid rancorous controversy, he was dismissed.

I have put together information about 8 significant first Black History figures relating to the U.K. They have been set out in alphabetical order. Allan Glaisyer Minns (1858-1930) was the first black man to become mayor in Britain - mayor of Thetford, Norfolk in 1904. Bill Morris, Baron Morris of Handsworth (born 1938), generally known as Bill Morris, became the first black leader of a major British trade union - Transport and General Workers’ Union (TGWU) (1992-2003). Eleanor Smith (born 1957) was the first British African- Caribbean person to become an M.P in Wolverhampton South West in 2017. A seat formally held by Enoch Powell for two decades. Ignatius Sancho (c.1729-1780) was a British abolitionist, writer and composer who was born on a slave ship in the Atlantic. In 1774 and 1780, once he had the status as a male property owner, meant he was legally able to vote in a general -election. He became known as the first Black Briton to have voted in Britain. Ira Aldridge (1807-1867)was and American and later British actor and playwright, is the only actor of African-American descent , among Learie Nicholas Constantine, Baron Constaine MBE,(1901-1971), a former West Indian cricketer, lawyer and politician became the UK’s first black peer. He was knighted in 1962 and made a life peer in 1969. Mary Prince (1788-1833) her slave narrative The History of Mary Price (1831) was the first account of the life of a black woman to be published in the U.K. Paul Boateng (born 1951), a British Labour Party politician became the UK’s first black cabinet minister in May 2002. Valerie Amos, Baroness Amos (born 1954), a British party politician and diplomat became the first black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) woman on 12th May 2003 to serve as a cabinet minister. William Cuffay (1788-1870) was a Chartist leader in early Victorian times. He was mixed race - the son of an English woman- Juliana Fox and a father of African heritage who was previously enslaved and originally from Saint Kitts. He was only 1.5 metres tall. William by trade was a tailor. He rejected the Owenite trade unions of the London tailors. He helped form the Metropolitan Tailors’ Charter Association. He was elected first to the Chartist Metropolitan Delegate Council in 1841 and onto the National Executive in 1842. He chaired a Great Public Meeting of Tailors in February. After the leading Chartists were arrested in 1842 he became the interim president. Betrayed by a government spy he was arrested and accused of ‘conspiring to levy war’. He was found guilty and sentenced to 21 years penal transportation in Tasmania. Received a pardon after 3 years but stayed in Tasmania to work as a tailor. He died in poverty, aged 82, in July 1870. He was forgotten after his death in Australia and Britain. Media and interest rekindled in early 21st century. Some information included on all 10 from Wikipedia. (More at Black First U.K (second set of 10) .

A brief look at the history of the Union Jack in colour with flags to colour… The Union Flag better known as the Union Jack is the flag of the United kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is one of the most famous flags in the world. Today it still retains an official or semi-official status in some of the Commonwealth Countries. It is found on the canton (upper left quarter) of many of their national flags. It is part of many ensigns (flags flown by a ship or submarine). The whole flag, or as a canton, appears on British empire and overseas territories, crown dependencies, diplomatic, government, governors and a few miscellaneous flags. Illustrated by David Woodroffe Information from Tony Batchelor

Hugh Latimer and Hicholas Ridley were burnt at the stake in Oxford on 16th October 1555 during the reign of Queen Mary ( 1553-8). In 1534 the Act of Supremacy was passed in England. It made Henry V111 head of the English Church instead of the Roman Catholic Pope in Rome. It was the beginning of the English Reformation. There was a rapid advance towards Protestantism after the accession of King Edward V1 Henry V111 was followed by Edward V1 1547-53,and Lady Jane Grey 1553 both protestants. Mary (1553-1558) was Roman Catholic and wanted the church in England to return to Roman Catholicism. Those in high places who opposed her were arrested for treason and some were martyred for heresy - refusing to subscribe to certain articles of faith such as the existence of purgatory an the need to venerate saints. Hugh Latimer had become the bishop of Worcester in 1535. Forced to resign his see in 1539. He popularized the idea of the reformation Nicholas Ridley was appointed bishop of Rochester. In 1550 he became bishop of London. he denied the doctrine of transubstantiation - that Christ’s natural body is present in the bread of the Eucharist after consecration.blood. The trial happened at the University Church of St. Mary the Virgin. They were imprisoned at the former Bocardo Prison. They were burnt at the stake just outside the city walls to the north, where Broad Street is now located. Latimer , at the stake is said to have immortalized himself by exhorting his fellow victim Ridley with these words - we shall this day light a candle, by God’s grace, in England as I trust shall never be put out If you visit Oxford a cross on Oxford’s Broad Street marks the site of the execution. Thomas Cramner - see more information available under his name. Act of Supremacy - see more information under Henry V111 and Act of Supremacy Sources used Britannica Online Encyclopedia History Today Wikipedeia

This is my third set of UK notes for those looking for Black History Month work. Adelaide Hall (1901-1993) was an American born, UK based, a multi-talented jazz singer and entertainer. She was a major figure in the Harlem Renaissance. Her career spanned from 1921 to 1993 when she died. Her most famous recording was Creole Love Call with Duke Ellington in 1927. In 2004 Adelaide was mentioned in the Guinness Book of Records for being the most enduring recording artist for having released material over 8 decades. Dr. Benjamin Obadiah Iqbal Zephaniah ( b. 1958) was born and raised in Birmingham, England. His poetry is strongly influenced by the music and poetry of Jamaica and what he calls ‘street politics’ He loved Handworth, but aged 22 he sought a wider mainstream audience. Page One Books, a small publisher in London, published -Pen Rhymes his first book - sold 3 editions. It was in performance that the Dub (Reggae) poet would cause a revolution- injecting new life into the British poetry scene. Over a 22 day period in 1991 he performed on every continent on the planet, He became a children’s poet. *Talking Turkeys was a great success. In 1999 he wrote a ground breaking novel for teenagers Face. Many young writers say that accessibility to his work has inspired them to write. Bernadine Evaristo (b. 1959) is a British author who was born in London to an English mother and Nigerian father. Her writings include short fiction, drama, poetry, essays, literacy criticism and projects for stage and screen. She is a longstanding advocate for the inclusion of writers and artists of colour, setting up many successful Black projects. In 2019 her eighth book, the novel * Girl Woman, Other* won the Booker prize, making her the first black woman and first black person to win it. In June 2020 she became the first woman of colour and the first black British writer to get a No.1 in the UK paperback fiction charts. She received an MBE (2009) and OBE (2020) for services to literature. Francis Morgan Ayodele Thompson (b 1958)- Daley Thompson double Olympic Decathlon Champion (1980 and 1984) . BRITAIN’s GREATEST ALL ROUND ATHLETE. (See notes) Fanny Eaton (1835-1924) was Jamaican born artists model and domestic worker. She is best known as model for the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Joan Armatrading (b.1950) is a British singer-songwriter and guitarist. Her recording career has spanned nearly 50 years. John Edmonstone (1793-c.1833) was the a black enslaved man, probably born in Demerera who later gained freedom. He taught taxidermy at Edinburgh University. Did Charles Darwin study under him? Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875-1912) was an English composer and conductor. Remembered for Song of Hiawatha cantatas. Stuart McPhail Hall (1932-2014) -one of the founding figures of the school now known as British Cultural Studies. Founder 'New Left Review Walter Daniel John Tull (1888-1918) played for Spurs & Rangers. Died in action

Apparently ocean exploration began around 5000BC! I am going to concentrate on 1930s+ and the creation of the firstbathysphere (from the Greek ’ bathus’ meaning ‘deep’ and ‘sphaira’ meaning ‘sphere’) which was a unique, unpowered, spherical deep-sea submersible which was lowered into the ocean by cable. It was created/designed by American Otis Barton an inventor and actor. Otis and William Beebe ( a naturalist)- made a dive off Bermuda in June 1930. The dive was conducted from the deck of a former British naval ship called the *Ready. They set the first record for deep-sea diving by descending to 600 ft. (180 m). In 1934 they improved the record to 3,028 ft ( 923m). Otis in 1949 set a new world record of 4,500 ft (1,372m) in the Pacific Ocean with the benthoscope (from the Greek ’ benthos’- meaning ‘sea bottom’ and ‘scopein’ to ’ view’). It was designed by Otis and Maurice Nelles. (Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997) - a French man and co-developer of the Aqua -Lung- deserves a mention because through his 120 television documentaries and 50 books he permitted many through viewers/readers to explore the resources of the oceans.) Jacques Piccard (1922-2008) was a Swiss oceanographer and engineer. He was known for developing submarines for studying ocean currents. In the bathyscaphe Trieste Jacques with his colleagues reached 24,000 feet. Jacques with Lt.Don, of the US Navy, on January 23, 1960 were the first to explore the deepest known part of the world’s ocean, the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench, located in the western North Pacific . The depth measured 35,813 feet (10,916 m) - a more accurate measure later 35,798 ft (10,911 m). Others have followed - James Cameron(2012 first solo descent), Victor Vescovo, Kathryn D.Sullivan and Vanessa 0’Brien (read their stories) The Deepsea Challenger was built in Australia in 2012 - construction was headed by Ron Allum ( Read development). J Sources Encyclopedia of Great Explorers Wikipedia

The attention of many potential explorers turned towards Space after 1945. Many unmanned rockets were sent up into space. In 1947 the USA launched primates into Space- many other animals followed. July 1951, Dezik and Tsygan, two dogs were launched into space by the USSR. The race to put man into space had begun. 10 years later on 12th April 1961 Yuri Gagarin, a Russian cosmonaut became the first man in space. The next race was to put the first man on the moon. On Wednesday 16th July 1969 Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket. On Sunday20th July 1969, in front of cameras for all of us back on Earth to watch, USA astronaut Neil Armstrong stepped onto the surface of the moon. Edwin ‘Buzz’ Aldrin was just steps behind. The third member of the crew Michael Collins stayed in the mother ship Columbia. The next step was a manned space programme - the Space Shuttle Transportation System (SSTS). The idea was to create a spaceship with a payload bay which would be launched by a rocket and glide back to Earth to be used again. The idea of the payload was to release/collect communication satellites. On 2nd April 1981 Robert Crippen and John Young were on board when the Space shuttle Columbia was successfully. 2020 sheet on spaceflight events during the year. On 11th July 2021 Richard Branson completed a successful suborbital space flight to reach the edge of space - the idea is to speed up journeys from continent to continent. On 13th October 2021 William Shatner, of Star Trek fame as Captain Kirk aged 90, hitched a ride aboard a suborbital spacecraft to become the oldest person to ever travel to space. Sheet on Future of Space exploration Plus First/Beginning vocabulary, 2 best copy sheets plus blank comic strip. Sources A brief Illustrated History of space exploration Encyclopedia of Great Explorers wikipedia

Having discovered the Americas explorers now needed to explore the new lands they had found. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) crossed the Atlantic 4 times. His voyages opened up the new continent to European explorers and conquerors. Vaco Nunez de Balboa (c,1475-1519) a Spanish explorer, governor and conquistador (adventurer and conqueror) was the first European to reach the Pacific from the New World. Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521) was a Spanish explorer, and conquistador known for leading the first official European expedition of Florida and being the first governor of Puerto Rico. Alvar Nunez Cabeza Vaca (c.1488- c.1560) a Spanish explorer. In 1540 became governor of Rio de Plata in Argentina. Francisco Pizarro (c,1478- 1542) was a Spanish conquistador is best known for his expeditions on the conquest of Peru Hernan Cortes (1485-1547)a Spanish conquistador,led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire ( Moctezuma 11 was their defeated leader) and brought large areas of Mexico under the rule of King of Castile. Jacques Cartier (1491- 1557) was a French-Breton maritime explorer. He was the first European to describe and map the Gulf and shores of the St.Lawrence River which he named The country of the Canadas. Hernando de Soto (1500- 1542) was a Spanish conquistador involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and Yucatan Peninsula. He also played an important role in Francisco Pizarro’s conquest on the Inca Empire in Peru. Francisco Vazquez de Coronado (1510- 1554) a Spanish conquistador and explorer led an expedition from Mexico to Kansas. He had the first European sightings of the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River. Samuel de Champlain (1567- 1635) was a very talented and well travelled Frenchman. He made between 21-29 trips to Canada. In 1603 he began his exploring of N.America under the guidance of his uncle Francois Grave Du Pont. He created the first accurate coastal maps during his explorations and founded various colonial settlements. He is remembered as the Father of New France. Rene -Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle (1643-1687) was a French explorer and fur trader. He is best known for canoing the lower Mississippi River from the mouth of the Illinois River to the Gulf of Mexico (9.4.1682) Louis Jolliet (1645-1700+) -a French Canadian Explorer and Jacques Marquette (1637-1675) a French Jesuit missionary, were the first non-natives to explore and map the Upper Mississippi River. Pierre Francois Xavier de Charlevoix (1682-1761) a French Jesuit priest often considered the first historian of New France. Captain Merriwether Lewis and Second Lieutenant William Clark between 1803-6 *crossed the Continental Divide of the Americas before reaching the Pacific. * John C. Fremont (1813-1890), aided by Christopher Houston Carson - Kit Carson (1809-1868), led 5 expeditions into the Western United States. I mainly highlighted exploration. Sources Encyclopedia of Great Explorers - Parragon Wikipedia

Saint Edmund, King of East Anglia, also known as Edmund the Martyr was England’s original Patron Saint. Aged just 15 in 856 Edmund became king of East Anglia. He rules his kingdom well and spent times restoring churches and monasteries destroyed in previous wars. In 870 the Danes invaded his kingdom, marching on Mercia. Edmund fought them at Hoxne, about 20 miles from Thetford, and was defeated. After the battle the Danish leader, Hingwar, demanded the king to hand over his treasure and accept the position of vassal. The king accepted the terms on the condition Hingwar would become a Christian. What happened next is uncertain. The Danes/Vikings destroyed any contemporary evidence of his reign. Writers later then produced fictional accounts of his life. Fact or Fiction? Edmund may have been killed in battle. It is uncertain where he actually died. OR, according to pictures depicting his death, this angered Hingwar so much that he had him tied up to a tree, shot at with arrows and was then beheaded. King Edmund became Edmund the Martyr. Taking the story even further Edmund’s head was thrown into the forest. The searchers hearing the sound of ethereal wolves calling out in Latin ’ Hic Hic Hic’ - in English ’ Here ,here ,here ’ found his head. Hingwar is referred elsewhere as Ivar the Boneless. Fact - Edmund’s bones in 902/3 remains were moved to Beodricsworth - modern Bury St. Edmunds where King Athelstan founded a religious community to care for his shrine aaaaand it beacame a place of national pilgrimage. ( read ‘Beodericworth’ paragraph) Where are the remains now ? ( read Where is St. Edmund?) King Edmund was a Christian king. He sacrificed his life because he refused to renounce Jesus Christ as his saviour.

Thomas Becket is one of the most famous men in English History. Henry11 asked, ‘Who will rid me of this traitor?’ Four of his knights took at his word and went to Canterbury Cathedral and in front of the high altar murdered Thomas. Henry 11 and Thomas had been friends. Henry 11 had appointed him to be his royal chancellor. He performed his duties very capably and became the king’s trusted servant and friend. On the death of of Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury Henry11 appointed Thomas his successor. He believed Thomas would serve the state as well as the church. On appointment Thomas changed his allegiance and his life style. He abandoned his worldly materialistic ways and became a saintly soul living a disciplined , pious and austere life. He steadfastly resisted all efforts to impose the royal will on the church. Discord developed over how the church and state dealt with clerics convicted of crimes. Following a quarrel Thomas, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was forced into exile in France (1164-1170). On his return to England in 1170 he met with his death. Henry11 when he heard the news was distraught - what he had said in anger he now regretted. Henry was forced to do penance because there was such an outpouring of rage from the public Thomas was sainted in 1173 and became the most popular saint in English History. His Legacy is enormous. In the ‘Canterbury Tales’ by Chaucer a group of pilgrims are on their way to worship at his shrine. (Read Legacy) Sources used Great Leaders of the Christian Church - Woodbridge contribution from Robert G. Clouse wipedia BBC History

Edward the Confessor was a king who later became recognized as a saint He lived in the eleventh century . He died shortly before the Battle of Hasting between King Harold, his successor and William 1, William the conqueror. There are differences of opinion as to whether he was a weak or a strong king. Confessor reflects his reputation as a saint who did not suffer martyrdom. Wikipedia uses the work ’ nickname ’ to reflect the traditional image of him as unworldly and pious. He did reign for 24 years It is said because he was unable to fulfill a vow to go to Rome that he built a monastery. The monastery we call Westminster Abbey. He re-established the Abbey of Westminster on a site of a church built 400 years earlier. It was the first Norman Romanesque church in England. Building began in 1042 and consecrated on 28th December 1065. Edward unfortunately was too ill to attend the ceremony and died the following week - 5th January 1066. Edward was buried at Westminster Abbey. His body was exhumed a number of times and was finally given a centerpiece, in a magnificent tomb, in the new thirteenth century ( present day )Abbey. Edward can be seen on the famous Bayeux Tapestry. Edward the Confessor was for many years the patron saint of England until Saint George, during the time of the Crusades, replaced him. HIs feast day is 13th October. Westminster Abbey was finally completed in 1090 some 25 years after his death. In 1245, during the reign of Henry111, it was demolished and replaced by today’s present building.

I came across a list of 10 Black British Healthcare Pioneers I have found extra information about most of them. 4 more have been added which were found during my research. I could not find a picture for all of them. Dr. Charles Drew is the American surgeon who developed techniques to preserve blood plasma. He helped the UK save 1000s of lives during WW11. Mary Seacole travelled independently to the Crimea war where she setup a British hotel to nurse the wounded. John Alcindor refused place in RAMC. He was awarded the Red Cross medal for working with the wounded at London rail stations during WW11. Annie Brewster - ‘Nurse Ophalmic’ - was very skilled with treating patients with eye problems. She was one of the first Afro-Caribbean nurses to work in UK. Harold Arundel Moody - he fought for discrimination to end. Became very influential when appointed to government advisory committee on the welfare of non-Europeans. Leader of the ** League of Coloured Peoples (1931) with the support of the Quakers. Tryphena Anderson - she was the first black person to receive a bursary to train as a health visitor. She late bought and managed a nursing home. Derk Harty - joined NHS, aged 23, as a technician and went on to become technical manager of the biochemistry department of London’s Whipps Cross Hospital. Dr. Fnanklyn Jacobs came to UK in 1974. He co-founded the African Caribbean Medical Society with Lord Pitt and Dr. Eddie Simon. It raises health issues within the black community. Nurse Omo-Oba Adenrele Ademola was a Nigerian princess. She trained as a nurse in London in the 1930s and remained working there through .WW11. Professor Laura Serrant has over 35 years experience of health practice, research. policy development, training and management. At the present time she is on secondment with NHS England as head of evidence and strategy in the nursing directorate. Professor Jacqueline Dunkley- Bent has vast experience in healthcare provision. She is the Chief Midwifery officer in England. Her experience has seen her leading and influencing national maternity standards and guidance. Professor Dame Elizabeth Nneka Anionwu was a British nurse, health care administrator, lecturer and Emeritus Professor of Nursing at University of West London. In 1979 became the UKs first sickle-cell and thalassemia nurse specialist, helping to establish the Brent Sickle Cell and Thalassemia Counselling centre. She retired in 2007. Dr. Titilola Banjoko in 2020 she joined International Rescue Committee (IRC) UK as Chair of the Board of Trustees. She has extensive knowledge of Global Health issues which will be relevant when responding to issues relating to the COVID -19 pandemic. Victor Olufemi Adebowale, Baron Adebowale for 20 years was the CEO of the social care enterprise Turning Point, which helps 77,000 unemployed and/or homeless persons each year. 2001 appointed a people’s peer. He an influential person in housing and the NHS…

The beginning on the 16th century saw explorers setting off around the world in search of trade and plunder. Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521), a Portugese explorer, is referred to being the first explorer to navigate around the earth. He never made it! He was killed on Mactan island in the Philippines. First Joao Lopes Carvalho became their leader. Then Juan Sebastian Elcano took over and successfully completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth on the *Victoria. Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596) an English explorer, sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer and politician, completed the circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition from 1577-80. Received knighthood from Elizabeth 1 in 1581. He went on to become vice-admiral , second in command during the Spanish Armada in 1588 Spain branded him a pirate Sir Thomas Cavendish (1560-1592) was an English explorer and privateer known as The Navigator. Like Drake he raided the Spanish towns and ships in the Pacific and completed a circumnavigation of the globe. His major prize was the 600 ton Manila galleon Santa Ana which made him very rich - Elizabeth1 knighted him on his return. (read the notes). He died at sea while on his second global trip. William Dampier (1651-1715) was an English explorer, privateer, navigator and naturalist. He was the first person to do it 3 times. He was the first Englishman to explore parts of Australia. He was among the first to identify names of new plants, animals, foods and cooking techniques for a European audience .(read his Legacy) George Anson,1st Baron Anson ( 1697-1762) was a Royal Navy officer who rose to the rank of First Lord of the Admiralty (1757-62). He under took his global trip during the War of Jenkins’ Ear. As admiral he carried out many reforms including tightening discipline throughout the Navy. Vice-Admiral John Byron (nickname Foul Weather Jack) (1723-1786) a British Navy officer. He sailed with George Anson but his ship was wrecked in Chile. It was not until 1764-6 as a commodore of his own squadron, did he complete the globe trip.officer. Louis Antoine de Bougainville, was a French admiral and explorer who did a circumnavigation of the globe in a scientific expedition in 1763 which included the first recoded settlement on the Falkland islands. Charles Wilkes (1798- 1877) - an American naval officer, ship’s captain and explorer led the United States Exploring Expedition (1838-42), which completely encircled the globe, it was the last all-sail naval mission to do so. Sources Encyclopedia of Great Explorers. wikipedia

16 British females who were explorers and /or travellers. Lady Hester Lucy Stanhope (1776-1839) was one of the most famous travellers of her age - she visited many countries in the near and Middle East including Egypt and Syria. Isabella Lucy Bird FRGS (1831-1904) born in England. From early childhood she was so frail an open air life was recommended. Aged 16 she began her writing career. In 1854 she went to the USA. In 1872 to Australia and moved on to Hawaii and climbed 2 mountains. In 1873 she covered 800 miles on horseback in the Rockies. In 1880 she went to Asia, Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam, Singapore and Malaya.In 1889 went to India. 1891 to Persia and Armenia - explored the Karun river. 1904 visited Morocco. She died in Edinburgh on 7 October 1904. Elizabeth Sarah Mazuchelli (1832-1914) English traveller and writer. She is said to be the first western woman to see Mount Everest. Mabel Virginia Anna Bent (1847-1929) spent 2 decades travelling, collecting and researching remote regions of the eastern Mediterranean,Asia Minor, Africa and Arabia. Mary Henrietta Kingsley (1862-1900 was a writer and explorer.She travelled throughout West Africa and helped shape the European perception of both African cultures and British colonialism in Africa. her 2 books gained her respect and prestige with her peers. Annette Mary Budgett Meakin (1867-1959) was the first English woman to travel to Japan on board the Trans-Siberian railway. Gertrude Emily Benham (1867- 1938) was a explorer who hiked and climbed mountains across the world. . She climbed mountains on almost every continent, her boots are displayed in Plymouth’s Museum. Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell CBE (1868-1926)was a traveller, writer, and an archaeologist. She travelled, explored and mapped Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Arabia. Gabrielle Maud Vassal (1880- 1959) was a naturalist. With her husband in 1903 she moved to Vietnam and later to French colonies in Africa. For a period of 30 years she supplied numerous specimens from Vietnam, Gabon and the Congo to the Natural History Museum in London. Charlotte Mansfield (1881-1936) known for her planned 1909 ‘Cape to Cairo’ journey which she never completed - she only reached as far as Lake Tanganyika before returning to South Africa. Enid Gordon- Gallien (1885-1931) was an adventurer and pilot who was awarded the Back Award in 1930 for her expedition in Tanganyika. Grace Marguerite Hay Drummond-Hay (1895-1946) the first woman to travel around the world by air in a zeppelin. Beryl Markham (1902-1986) she was the first person to fly solo ,non-stop across the Atlantic from GB to N.America. Beryl Smeeton (1905-1979)and her husband Miles tried everything! (see list) Felicity Ann Dawn Aston MBE FRGS (born 1977) she has raced across both the Arctic and Antarctic. First to ski solo across the Antarctic (2011). Laura Bingham (born 1993) best known for leading the first descent of the Essenquibo River in Guyana