The contents of this collection (publication and lectures) are intended to form a brief introduction to the principal cultures of Asia and their buildings. That inevitably involves a great deal of generalization, a lot of simplification — and the reader will have to accept that. But in doing so we are trying to make the subject approachable and intelligible. And to show something of the extraordinary sweep of architecture over one continent in a period of over four and five thousand years. This book will trace the domestic architecture of many regions of Asia and in each area will attempt to show how that relates to the development of the religious buildings of each culture. Overall it examines the question of the genesis of architecture and urbanism as conscious responses to the environment to social conditions and to beliefs and ideologies. Eastern Architecture is a collection of lectures given by Professor Ron Lewcock at the School of Architecture, University of Queensland, Australia. The lectures were organised Dr. Pedro Guedes. The Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) Education Programme is grateful to the School of Architecture at the University of Queensland, Australia, and to Professor Ron Lewcock for having authorized the posting on Archnet of these 12 lectures. The lectures were filmed by Hana Broughton and edited by Dr. Pedro Guedes. The lectures are accompanied here by a guidebook co-edited in 2019 by Prof. Lewcock and Dr. Pedro Guedes. AKTC wishes to thank Dr. Guedes for having facilitated the sharing of this high-quality Creative Commons educational resource, which can be accessed on the University of Queensland platform In this collection: Eastern Architectures Secular and Religious: From Pre-historic Times to the Early Twentieth Century Pre-historic Asia (2 parts) Southeast Asia Transoceanic Influences Hindu Temples and Houses Buddhist Temples and Houses China (2 parts) Japan Korea Korea, Japan, and the Islamic World Part 1 The Islamic World Part 2 The Islamic City (2 parts)

The third lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson covers the late Ummayad Dynasty in Spain and the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “The Great Mosque at Córdoba and Umayyad Spain.” Lesson 3/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The fourth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson looks comparatively at the Mosque of Córdoba in relation to near contemporary prototypes in terms of morphology (building components: domes, arcades, different kinds of roofing), plan, construction techniques, and decoration. Second, this lesson will discuss Al-Hakam II’s refurbishment from 962 to 969 and the ways that they assert an ideology of Umayyad victory. Third, the palace at Madinat al-Zahra was built 3 miles outside of Córdoba as the new administrative and royal seat of the Umayyad caliph. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “Architecture of Exile The Umayyads of Spain.” Lesson 4/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The sixth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson covers the Abbasid Dynasty and architecture in Baghdad, Samarra and the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “Architecture of Empire The Abbasids.” Lesson 6/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The seventh lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson looks at the city of Fatimid Cairo, the first 50 years of Fatimid rule in North Africa and the growth of Cairo from its inception in 969 through the mid-11th century. It will discuss the urban form as it relates to shifts in ceremonial practices and planned conversion of the Sunni population. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “Fatimid Cairo.” Lesson 7/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The tenth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores cultural connections and interactions between the two new frontiers of Islam, namely Anatolia and India, through the newly emerging architectural styles, forms and decorative programs in both regions. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “The Seljuks and New Frontiers in Anatolia and India.” Lesson 10/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The eleventh lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson will explore how new kinds of cities and palaces developed under the Mongols to reflect forms of cultural and artistic adaptations and assimilations. These adaptations were driven by Mongol lifestyle which was nomadic, and the sedentary territories over which they ruled. What were the effects of adapting to aspects of sedentary culture? How did this relate to changes in artistic and architectural practices? How do we define permanent and portable architecture? How do these differences relate to nomadic and sedentary lifestyles? Another part of what we will focus on today involves the very close connections that are established between Qubilai Khan, the Great Khan of China and Mongolia, and the lands of Greater Iran ruled over by the Ilkhanid dynasty founded by Hülegü, Qubilai Khan’s brother. How does urban planning in contemporary China compare and contrast with Iran? Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “Between Portable and Permanent Architecture.” Lesson 11/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The twelfth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores a dialogue between soft and hard architecture, between an architecture that is portable, ephemeral and essentially nomadic in nature, and its intersection with sedentary forms of architecture that were mostly permanent and fixed. What exchanges occurred between temporary and permanent architecture? How do ceramic tiles reflect the impact of portable architecture? In Timurid Samarqand, we will explore a slightly different process of assimilation than that of the Ilkhanid projects, which primarily functioned as translation from the nomadic to sedentary. Rather, we will investigate how Timur and the nomadic tribes of Central Asia, who were already deeply familiar with the traditions of sedentary Islam, accumulated and redirected diverse cultural and aesthetic traditions. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “Timurid Cities in Iran and Central Asia.” Lesson 12/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The thirteenth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores the modern history of the Alhambra and the changing functions of the site. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “The Alhambra.” Lesson 13/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The fifteenth and sixteenth lessons in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. Th lessons explores the ways in which the Mamluks inscribed their political power and presence on the urban landscape of Cairo. How did they transform the monumental topography of Cairo? On which parts of the city was Mamluk patronage activity focused? We will learn about architectural innovations in Cairo through one main case study, the construction of the Sultan Hasan complex. How did the waqf system become a tool for the Mamluk elite to display their piety to the public and also to protect their wealth. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “The Madrasa-Mosque Complex of Sultan Hasan and the Mamluk System of Charitable Endowments.” Lesson 15-16/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The fourteenth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores the wider question of architectural style, the choices made in architecture, and its relationship to political ideology. It will also explore the architectural exchange exhibited between Peter the Just, also known as Pedro the Cruel, and Muhammad V in their respective palaces and is intended to complicate the idea that particular kinds of architectural styles are confined to particular religions, whether it be Judaism, Islam, or Christianity. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “A Cross Cultural Aesthetic.” Lesson 14/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The seventeenth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. In this lesson, by way of focusing on a single monument, namely the Süleymaniye mosque complex in Istanbul (1550s) commissioned by Sultan Suleyman (r. 1520-66) from his Chief Court Architect Mimar Sinan, we will discuss 16th century Ottoman architectural culture and practices. In which ways were elements from the Roman-Byzantine and Italian Renaissance architectural traditions selectively integrated into the Ottoman architectural idiom? How did the Ottoman sultanic mosques of Constantinople/Istanbul make direct references to the international prestige of the city’s premier 6th century Byzantine church, Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya, now functioning as the leading Friday mosque of their new capital)? How does the Süleymaniye complex differ from the Hagia Sophia and previous Ottoman mosques in terms of spatiality, scale, materiality, and ornament? What are the novelties of mosques designed by Sinan, who served as the Ottoman chief court architect for half a century (between 1539 and 1588) during the reigns of three sultans (Suleyman I, Selim II, Murad II)? Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “ The Mosque Complex of Sultan Süleyman.” Lesson 17/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The second lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson covers the late Ummayad Dynasty and early mosque architecture.

The fifth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson covers the Abbasid Dynasty and the cities of Baghdad and Samarra. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “New Abbasid Cities Baghdad and Samarra .” Lesson 5/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The eighteenth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores: What does the term “decorum” mean when it is applied to architecture? In what ways was architectural decorum informed social and territorial hierarchies in the Ottoman empire? How did a sultanic mosque differ from a mosque commissioned by a queen, princess or a vizier in terms of its architectural layout and features? What were the innovations Sinan introduce into the Ottoman architectural idiom? Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “Chief Court Architect Sinan and His Autobiography.” Lesson 18/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The nineteenth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores the development of the Safavid empire, which reached its apex in the capital city of Isfahan. The city as a global metropolis is characterized by its economic growth, cultural efflorescence, and social diversity. Throughout this lesson we will explore how it was that the city evolved, as well as how it embodied ideas about the ruler, the state, and society, in addition to cultivating an economic upsurge. What is the story that the city is telling us about the Safavid elite and its relationship to this multi-ethnic, multi-confessional population? Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “Isfahan under Shah Abbas.” Lesson 13/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

*The twentieth lesson (part 1 of 2) in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores the architectural and social formation of Safavid Isfahan that was shaped by the political and economic aims of Shah ʿAbbas and his successors and the sociopolitical reorganization shared in the alliances and competitions among vested groups. This included a royal monopoly in the silk trade, and their Armenian and European facilitators, as well as the “capitalist” ventures of the new mercantile communities that engaged in long‐distance trade. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “International Trade and the King’s Silk Monopoly Part One.” Lesson 20A/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.*

The twentieth lesson (part 2 of 2) in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson explores the architectural and social formation of Safavid Isfahan that was shaped by the political and economic aims of Shah ʿAbbas and his successors and the sociopolitical reorganization shared in the alliances and competitions among vested groups. This included a royal monopoly in the silk trade, and their Armenian and European facilitators, as well as the “capitalist” ventures of the new mercantile communities that engaged in long‐distance trade. Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “International Trade and the King’s Silk Monopoly Part Two.” Lesson 20B/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.

The eighth lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson addresses the ways in which the city of Cairo changed over time in response to new conditions. How did shifting political and economic realities influence architecture and patronage? How did the failure to convert the Sunni population to Isma’ili Shi’ism impact Fatimid architecture? How was it that the city of Cairo and Fustat were yoked together as a locus for court ceremony?

The twenty-first lesson in a 22 lesson course on Monuments of Islamic Architecture developed by Professors Gulru Necipoglu and David Roxburgh at the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University. This lesson will uncover the multilayered meanings of the Taj Mahal, a major Mughal monument from the mid-seventeenth century, which has been understood, in general, as an expression of the undying love of the Mughal ruler Shah Jahan for his wife, the queen Mumtaz Mahal. What was the significance of the complex for the creation of a commercial quarter in the city? In which ways did the complex gain paradisiac connotations? What are the roles of the usage of the chahar bagh garden type, the hasht bihisht plan type, and specific materials and decorative motifs in producing such architectural meanings and symbolism? Citation Necipoglu, Gulru and David Roxburgh. “The Taj Mahal in Agra: The Mausoleum as Eternal Garden.” Lesson 21/22 presentation developed for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture Education Programme, 2019.