Taytu was the third wife of Emperor Manelik II. She was an influential figure in anti-colonial resistance against the Italians during the 19th scramble for Africa. Along with her husband they founded the modern Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa in 1886. As empress she played a valuable role advising her husband on all political matters. Together they laid foundations for medical care, postal service, wool production, the railways and the tax system.Under the powerful couple Ethiopia advanced into the beginning of the 20th century. The Treaty of Wuchale (1889) was signed with Ethiopia and Italy to strengthen their relationship but the Amharic (Ethiopian language) and Italian versions were different. An added article in the Italian version declared Ethiopia a protectorate of Italy. Italy had wanted Ethiopia to become a colony. WAR ensued - the battle of Adwa followed . Taytu was present on the front line and led the Ethiopians to a historic victory with strategic brilliance and courage. Ethiopia had successfully defended its sovereignty and became an inspiration for African freedom. In early 1900’s Manelik II fell seriously ill and Taytu took all the decisions for Ethiopia. In her fourth and final marriage she married king Manelik of Shewa who later become Emperor of Ethiopia Sources Wikipedia *RISE: Extraordinary Women of Colour Who Changed the World * *by Maliha Abidi .

Raziyyat-Utd-Dunya Wa Ud-Din, popularly known as Razia Sultan, was the fifth Sultan of Delhi. She was courageous, just and generous. She was the only female ruler to sit on the Delhi throne. She was the daughter of Sultan Shamsuddin Litutmish. He had 3 sons. The eldest and heir died prematurely The other two were more interested in the indulgence of royal pleasures rather than leadership. Razia administered Delhi (1231-2) when her father was busy in the Gwalior campaign. Litutmish nominated her to succeed him. fe or mistreaa On his death Ruknuddin Firuz , her half brother, succeeded him and his mother, Shah Turkan, wanted Razia executed. But Razia instigated the general public against him. Ruknuddin and his mother were assassinated. Razia, a female, was now Sultan.She adopted masculine attire in court and on the battlefield.She believed in her supremacy as a ruler and took the title Sultan - (she refused to be called Sultana because it denoted a wife or mistress of the Sultan). Her reign was short. She was a great leader who cared deeply about the empire and was popular with her subjects. She expanded the territory of the state, and fostered peace and prosperity. There was unfortunately resentment against her and she reigned for less than years (1236-40) . She married one of the rebel leaders - Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia in an attempt to regain the throne but was defeated by her half brother and successor Muizuddin Bahramin in October 1240 . She was killed shortly afterwards. Sources Wikipedia RISE: Extraordinary Women of Colour Who Changed the World by Maliha Abidi

Empress Wu Zetian was China’s first and only female ruler She was de facto ruler of the Tang dynasty from 665-705, ruling first through others as empress consort for her husband Emperor Gaozong and then their sons Emperors Zhongzong and Ruizong ,and then (from 690) as empress dowager in her own right. Under her 40 year reign China grew larger, becoming one of the great powers of the world, its culture and economy were revitalized and corruption in the court was reduced. She was removed from power in a coup and died a few months later. As a 14 year old the bright and beautiful Wu Zetian was noticed by Emperor Taizong and became his concubine…She soon had considerable political power After his death she married his ninth son and successor, Emperor Gaozong. After their wedding In 655 she became the empress consort- the highest ranking of the wives. She was a strong,charismatic , vengeful, ambitious and well-educated women who enjoyed the absolute affection of her husband. In 660 Gaozong suffered a stroke and in 665 she became administrator of the court a position equal to the emperors. (He died in 683) She was at the helm of the country for long years, her power is no different from that of the emperor. Sources Wikipedia Herstory by Katherine Halligan

Peter, the Hermit was a Roman Catholic Priest from Amiens. Pope Urban 11 called for a crusade to liberate the Holy Places (1095)- destination the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Jerusalem. Peter toured Europe preaching the crusade. He was a key figure during the military expedition from France to Jerusalem, known as the People’s Crusade or Crusade of the Paupers. He was one of the preachers of the armed pilgrimage and leapt to fame as an emotional revivalist. Historians agree that 1000s of serfs and peasants eagerly took the cross at his bid. Some historians think the crusade would have included well-armed soldiers and nobles. The Crusade to the Holy Land began in the spring of 1096. He received permission from Patriarch Simeon 11 of Jerusalem. He recruited from England, Lorraine, France and Flanders. The start was disastrously with the massacre of Jewish civilians ( ReadMassacre of Jewish civilians) They then had to go through Hungary, Belgrade and Sofia. They started in April 1096 with 40,000 men and women from Cologne and arrived in Constantinople with 30,000 by the end of July. (The ‘locals’ were expected to feed the vast host of paupers for the remainders of their journey.)r ( Read Hungary, Belgrade Sofia and Constantinople) During the winter (1096/7), with little hope of securing Byzantine support, the Crusade waited for the armed crusaders as their sole source of protection in completing the pilgrimage. The numbers, to a small degree, were replenished with disarmed , injured or bankrupted crusaders. . After a few rousing speeches Peter now played a subordinate role, The Crusade settled on a military campaign to secure the pilgrimage routes and holy sites in Palestine. When they reached Antioch at the beginning of 1098 he gave a stirring speech before the half-starved Crusaders gained victory over the superior Muslim army besieging the city. In 1099 he appears as the treasurer of the alms at the siege of Arqa. He was leader of he supplication processions around the walls of Jerusalem before it fell and later, within Jerusalem, after the surprising victory at the Battle of Ascalon (August). At the end of 1099 he went to Latakia and sailed for the west. From this time he disappears from the historical records except in his obituary in the chronicle at Neufmoustier Abbey. ( read Later Life) In 1100 he returned to Europe to be the prior at the monastery he had founded in Neufmroutier near Huy. H e died in 1115 and his tomb is in Neufmoustier Abbey.-* His name. He is called Pierre l’Ermite in French. The structure of the name in French unlike in English has led some francophone scholars to treat l’Ermite as a surname rather than a title. Sources Wikipedia The Hodder & Stoughton Book of Famous Christians by Tony Castle

William was born during the reign of Elizabeth 1 (1558-1603) and beheaded during the reign of Charles 1 (1625-1649). William was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury by Charles 1 in 1633. and was a key advocate of his religious reforms. He was a highly effective parliamentarian and a key adviser ad policy-maker. He was bishop of Bath and Wells, then London before becoming Archbishop of Canterbury i in 1633 He was a firm believer in episcopalianism -the rule by bishops.* Laudianism refers to liturgical practices designed to enforce uniformity within the C of E as outlined by Charles 1. He was accused of Arminianism - favouring doctrines of the historic church prior to the Reformation. He was opposed to Calvinism. The Long Parliament of 1640 accused Laud of treason. Impeached in the the Grand Remonstrance of 1641 and was imprisonment in the Tower of London. In 1644 he was brought to trial which ended without a verdict. Parliament took up the issue and eventually passed a bill of attainder , under which Laud was beheaded on Tower Hill on 10 th of January 1645. He was buried in the chapel of St. John’s College, Oxford. This was towards the end of the First English Civil War (1642-6) Charles 1 towards the end of his life admitted he had put too much trust in William and warned his son not to rely on anyone else’s judgment. William was born in Reading, Berkshire. Source Wikipedia.

Hugh was the Bishop of Worcester(1535-9) during the Reformation. He became the C of E chaplain to King Edward V1. In his middle 60s he faced a trial on 14th April 1554… He argued, in writing since he was hardly able to sustain a debate at his age, that the doctrines of the real presence of Christ in the mass, transubstantiation and the propitiatory merit of the mass were unbiblical. In 1555 under the Catholic Queen Mary 1 he was tried for his beliefs and teachings. He was burned with Nicholas Ridley at the stake. He became one of the three Oxford Martyrs -Thomas Cramner was the third. It may come in my days,as old as i am, or in my children’s days, the saints shall be taken up to meet Christ in the air, and so shall come down with him again. Hugh Latimer Source Wikipedia

Stephen was considered one of the greatest of the medieval Archbishops of Canterbury. Stephen was an English Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Archbishop of Canterbury between 1207 and 1228. He was consecrated by the Pope at Viterbo on 17th June 1207. He supported the barons in the struggle with King John. At a council of churchmen at Westminster on 25th August 1213 certain barons were invited to read the charter of Henry 1 and called for its renewal. Stephen’s energetic leadership and the barons’ military strength forced John to grant his seal to Magna Carta -15 June 1215 on Runnymead in Windsor… Stephen is believed to be the one who divided the Bible into the standard modern arrangement of chapters.

Rowland Hill was an English teacher, inventor and social reformer. He campaigned for a comprehensive reform of the postal system… he is usually credited with originating the basic concepts of the modern postal service, including the invention of the postage stamp. He started to take an interest in postal reforms in 1835 Hill’s pamphlet Post Office Reform;Its importance and Practicability was submitted to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Thomas Spring Rice on 4th January 1817. It was then circulated privately. The postal service was mismanaged, wasteful, expensive and slow. It had become inadequate for the needs of an expanding commercial and industrial nation. It stated costs could be reduced if postage were prepaid by the sender. Proposing an adhesive stamp to indicate pre-payment of postage. 1840 was the first year of the Penny Post. In May 1840 the world’s first adhesive postage stamps were distributed. Rowland continued at the Post Office until the Conservative Party won the 1841 General Election . In July 1842, amid rancorous controversy, he was dismissed.

16 British females who were explorers and /or travellers. Lady Hester Lucy Stanhope (1776-1839) was one of the most famous travellers of her age - she visited many countries in the near and Middle East including Egypt and Syria. Isabella Lucy Bird FRGS (1831-1904) born in England. From early childhood she was so frail an open air life was recommended. Aged 16 she began her writing career. In 1854 she went to the USA. In 1872 to Australia and moved on to Hawaii and climbed 2 mountains. In 1873 she covered 800 miles on horseback in the Rockies. In 1880 she went to Asia, Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam, Singapore and Malaya.In 1889 went to India. 1891 to Persia and Armenia - explored the Karun river. 1904 visited Morocco. She died in Edinburgh on 7 October 1904. Elizabeth Sarah Mazuchelli (1832-1914) English traveller and writer. She is said to be the first western woman to see Mount Everest. Mabel Virginia Anna Bent (1847-1929) spent 2 decades travelling, collecting and researching remote regions of the eastern Mediterranean,Asia Minor, Africa and Arabia. Mary Henrietta Kingsley (1862-1900 was a writer and explorer.She travelled throughout West Africa and helped shape the European perception of both African cultures and British colonialism in Africa. her 2 books gained her respect and prestige with her peers. Annette Mary Budgett Meakin (1867-1959) was the first English woman to travel to Japan on board the Trans-Siberian railway. Gertrude Emily Benham (1867- 1938) was a explorer who hiked and climbed mountains across the world. . She climbed mountains on almost every continent, her boots are displayed in Plymouth’s Museum. Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell CBE (1868-1926)was a traveller, writer, and an archaeologist. She travelled, explored and mapped Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Arabia. Gabrielle Maud Vassal (1880- 1959) was a naturalist. With her husband in 1903 she moved to Vietnam and later to French colonies in Africa. For a period of 30 years she supplied numerous specimens from Vietnam, Gabon and the Congo to the Natural History Museum in London. Charlotte Mansfield (1881-1936) known for her planned 1909 ‘Cape to Cairo’ journey which she never completed - she only reached as far as Lake Tanganyika before returning to South Africa. Enid Gordon- Gallien (1885-1931) was an adventurer and pilot who was awarded the Back Award in 1930 for her expedition in Tanganyika. Grace Marguerite Hay Drummond-Hay (1895-1946) the first woman to travel around the world by air in a zeppelin. Beryl Markham (1902-1986) she was the first person to fly solo ,non-stop across the Atlantic from GB to N.America. Beryl Smeeton (1905-1979)and her husband Miles tried everything! (see list) Felicity Ann Dawn Aston MBE FRGS (born 1977) she has raced across both the Arctic and Antarctic. First to ski solo across the Antarctic (2011). Laura Bingham (born 1993) best known for leading the first descent of the Essenquibo River in Guyana

Having explored the coastline of Africa they then began to explore the interior. Mungo Park (1771-1806) was a Scottish explorer who in 1796 explored the upper Niger River. In his popular book he theorized that the Niger and Congo merged into one( (In 1830 it was proved they were 2 separate rivers.) . He was killed during his second exploration. Bain Hugh Clapperton (1788-1827)and his servant Richard Lander set out with Walter Oudney from Tripoli in 1822 to see if the Niger passed through the Muslim Kingdom of Kanem-Bornu around Lake Chad. In Murzuk Major Dixon Denham found them in a wretched condition. Clapperton and Denham quickly disliked each other. The 3 eventually arrived at Kuka (now Kuawa in Nigeria)… They separated - Clapperton and Oudney to explore the course of the Niger, Denham to the rivers Waube, Logone and Shari. Oudney died in Murmur. Clapperton and Denham returned together to the UK. In 1825 Clapperton returned with Lander but died. Lander then returned to UK, collected his brother John and returned. They were captured and held for ransom. Richard, as a slave, completed the journey to the mouth of the Niger! James Bruce of Kinnard (1730-1794) was a Scottish traveller and travel writer who confirmed the source of the Blue Nile. In 1770 he was the first European to trace the origins of the blue Nile from Egypt and Sudan. He spent 12 years in North Africa and Ethiopia. Auguste Rene Caillie (1799-1838) was a French explorer and the first European to return alive from the town of Timbuktu. May 1828 he crossed the Sahara with 1,400 camel caravan. Johanna Heinrich Barth (1821-1865), a German scholar, is thought to be one of the greatest European explorers of Africa. He published a 5 volume account of travels in English and German which has been invaluable of his time and since. Sir Richard Francis Burton (1821-1890) and John Hanning Speke (1827-1864) were set the task of finding the source of the River Nile. Burton was famed for his travels and explorations and spoke 29 languages, In 1858 they discovered Lake Tanganyika - the second largest lake in Africa. Speke headed north and in July 1858 discovered Lake Victoria. Speke was convinced others were not. Speke with James Grant (1827-1892) set off in 1860. Speke in July 1862 found a waterfall on the northern end of the Lake Victoria -it led down to a river- this was the start of the Nile Burton was not convinced so they agree to a debate. On the day of the debate, Speke accidentally killed himself with his gun. David Livingstone (1813-1873) was first and foremost a doctor and missionary but also an explorer. ( See map journeys and separate try). Henry Morton Stanley (1841-1904) was Welsh-American explorer, journalist, soldier. Remembered for his search for David. Also for his search for the source of the Nile. Mary Henrietta Kingsley (1862-1900) wrote 2 books which gained her respect and prestige with her peers. Encyclopedia of Great Explorers

In the 16th century explorers set out across the Pacific Alvaro de Mendana de Neira (1542-1595) was a Spanish navigator and discover. he best known for his expeditions in 1567 and 1595 when he discovered the Marqueasa, Cook Islands and Solomons. Pedro Fernandes de Queiros (1563-1614) was a Portuguese navigator in the service of the Spanish He worked with Neira. In 1605-6 led expedition that crossed the Pacific in search of Terra Australia. Luis Vaz de Torres (1565-1607)took over Queiros expedition. He was the first European to navigate the strait that separates Australia mainland from the island of New Guinea. (Torres Strait named after him Abel Tasman (1603-1659) was Dutch seafarer,explorer and merchant. Working for the Dutch East india Company (DEIC) he was the first European to reach New Zealand and the islands of Fiji and Tasmania. by circumnavigating Australia he proved that the fifth continent was not joined to any other larger continent. (Read legacy for the many place named after him.) Captain James Cook (1728-1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer in the British Navy. Between 1768-79 he made 3 voyages to the Pacific Ocean and Australia ( first to see kangaroos ) recorded first circumnavigation of New Zealand. He was the first to cross the Antarctic Circle and sailed right round the South Pole. At the end of his third voyage he returned to Hawaii where he was killed. (Read Death and Aftermath)) Jean-Francois de Galaup, comte de La Perouse (1741-1788) was a French naval officer and explorer. In 1785 he was appointed to lead a scientific expedition around the world using the ships Boussole and Asrolabe. He visited 8 countries before being wrecked on the reefs of Vanikoro in the Solomon Islands. He had earlier material back to Europe which resulted in pictorial atlas (1798). ( Wrecks of the 2 ships found in 1828 on the Santa Cruz Islands) Charles Napier Sturt (1795-1869) was a British officer and explorer. led several expeditions into the interior of the Australian continent starting from Sydney and later Adelaide. Edward John Eyre (1815-1901) was an English land explorer he went on 2 expeditions - north to the Flinders Ranges and west beyond Ceduna, plus reaching a lake that was later named Lake Eyre in his honour. With Wylie, an aboriginal. he traversed the coastline of the Great Australian Bight and the Nullarbor Plain in 1840-1 John McDouall Stuart (1815-1866) was a Scottish explorer. He led the first successful expedition south to north and return of Australia. Burke and Wills expedition 1860-1 task was to cross Australia - 3,250 kms with 19 men and 26 camels The expedition was a disaster ( read notes and legacy). Thor Heyerdahl (1914-2002) is noted for his Kon-Tiki expedition in 1947 when he travelled 8,000 kms in a hand built boat raft.

Having discovered the Americas explorers now needed to explore the new lands they had found. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) crossed the Atlantic 4 times. His voyages opened up the new continent to European explorers and conquerors. Vaco Nunez de Balboa (c,1475-1519) a Spanish explorer, governor and conquistador (adventurer and conqueror) was the first European to reach the Pacific from the New World. Juan Ponce de Leon (1474-1521) was a Spanish explorer, and conquistador known for leading the first official European expedition of Florida and being the first governor of Puerto Rico. Alvar Nunez Cabeza Vaca (c.1488- c.1560) a Spanish explorer. In 1540 became governor of Rio de Plata in Argentina. Francisco Pizarro (c,1478- 1542) was a Spanish conquistador is best known for his expeditions on the conquest of Peru Hernan Cortes (1485-1547)a Spanish conquistador,led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire ( Moctezuma 11 was their defeated leader) and brought large areas of Mexico under the rule of King of Castile. Jacques Cartier (1491- 1557) was a French-Breton maritime explorer. He was the first European to describe and map the Gulf and shores of the St.Lawrence River which he named The country of the Canadas. Hernando de Soto (1500- 1542) was a Spanish conquistador involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and Yucatan Peninsula. He also played an important role in Francisco Pizarro’s conquest on the Inca Empire in Peru. Francisco Vazquez de Coronado (1510- 1554) a Spanish conquistador and explorer led an expedition from Mexico to Kansas. He had the first European sightings of the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River. Samuel de Champlain (1567- 1635) was a very talented and well travelled Frenchman. He made between 21-29 trips to Canada. In 1603 he began his exploring of N.America under the guidance of his uncle Francois Grave Du Pont. He created the first accurate coastal maps during his explorations and founded various colonial settlements. He is remembered as the Father of New France. Rene -Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle (1643-1687) was a French explorer and fur trader. He is best known for canoing the lower Mississippi River from the mouth of the Illinois River to the Gulf of Mexico (9.4.1682) Louis Jolliet (1645-1700+) -a French Canadian Explorer and Jacques Marquette (1637-1675) a French Jesuit missionary, were the first non-natives to explore and map the Upper Mississippi River. Pierre Francois Xavier de Charlevoix (1682-1761) a French Jesuit priest often considered the first historian of New France. Captain Merriwether Lewis and Second Lieutenant William Clark between 1803-6 *crossed the Continental Divide of the Americas before reaching the Pacific. * John C. Fremont (1813-1890), aided by Christopher Houston Carson - Kit Carson (1809-1868), led 5 expeditions into the Western United States. I mainly highlighted exploration. Sources Encyclopedia of Great Explorers - Parragon Wikipedia

Explorers wanted to find an alternative route to Asia by Sea. They decided to go west. Instead of finding Asia they found the North and South America. Christopher Columbus ( c.1451-1506) an Italian set out in 1492 to find Cipangu in Japan instead he found America. John Cabot (c.1450-1500) in 1497 decided to take a shorter route and landed at Newfoundland or Nova Scotia - both are in modern Canada. 4 Europeans in 1499-1500 went south and found South America. Americo Vespucci went with Alonso de Ojeda. The other 2 were Vincente Yanez Pinzon - who found the estuary to the mighty River Amazon- and Pedro Alvares Cabral - who is celebrated as the discover of Brazil by the Brazilians Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485-1528) is renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and new Brunswick in 1524, including New York Bay. William Adams (1564-1620) was an English navigator who in 1600 was the first Englishman to reach Japan when leading a 5 ship expedition for a private Dutch Fleet (only 1 ship reached Japan). He was known in Japan as 'the pilot of Miura’and became a key advisor to the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu. Henry Hudson (c.1565-23rd June 1611) was an English explorer and navigator best known for explorations of Canada and the northeastern USA in his ship Half Moon. In 1607 & 1608 tried to find the Northeast Passage to Cathay. In 1611 most of his crew mutinied - he with his son and 7 others set adrift- they were never seen again.Hudson River,/Strait/Bay named after him. Martin Frobisher (c.1535-1594) was an English seaman and privateer who made 3 voyages to the New World looking for the North-west Passage. In 1576 he sailed past Iceland and Greenland across the Davis Strait to the south of Baffin Island. On his voyage he thought he had found gold - brought tons back to UK only to find it was a worthless rock. Richard Chancellor (died 10th November 1556) was an English explorer and navigator. He was the first to penetrate to the White Sea and establish relations with the Tsardom of Russia. Returning to UK in a fleet of 4 ships, with the first Russian ambassador on board, the ships met bad weather off the coast of Norway which eventually cost Richard his life and many others. ( Read extract). Willem Barebtsz (c.1550-1597) was a Dutch navigator, cartographer and Arctic explorer. He went on 3 expeditions- on the third they discovered Spitsbergen and Bear Island. They ended stranded on Novaya Zemlya for almost a year. Died on return voyage in 1597. Sir John Franklin (1786-1847) was a British Royal Navy officer and Arctic explorer. Led 2 expeditions into the Canadian Arctic in 1819 and 1825. In 1845 his ships were icebound off King William Island. He died on 11th June 1847, all crew died later. Adolf Eric Norden Skiold (1832-1901) Finland- Swedish ( Read long lists of expeditions) Roald Amundsen (1872-1928) in 1903-6 first to successfully navigate the Northwest Passage on the Gjoa

Today there are solo races around the globe. Joshua Slocum,an American, between 1895-8 was the first to sail solo around the world - circumnavigation. This is a brief history of how man ( men and women) have speed up the circumnavigation over the last 200 years Joshua Slocum(1844-1909) spent a year !891-2) rebuilding his gaff rigged sloop oyster boat Spray. which was capable of self-steering. His book Sailing Alone (1899) won him widespread fame. Sir Francis Chichester (1901-1972) a British businessman, pioneer aviator and solo sailer. In his* Gypsy Moth 1V* he was the first person to sail singlehanded around the world by the clipper route and the fastest circumnavigator in 9 months and one day in 1966-7. In 1958 he had been diagnosed with terminal lung cancer! Sir William Robert Patrick Knox-Johnson (born 1939) better known as Robin Knox-Johnson, in 1969 became the first person to complete a single-handed non-stop circumnavigation of the globe. His entered his small Suhaili * in the* Sunday Times Golden Globe Race. There were 9 in the race the others dropped out. The race had started on 14th June 1968 and finished on 22nd of April 1969. Francis Joyon (born 1956) is a French professional sailboat racer and yachtsman. In February 2004 he became the new record holder setting a time of 72 days 22 hrs 54mins 22 secs. on IDEC formerly known as Sport Elec a boat not designed for single -handed sailing. Dame Ellen MacArthur (born 1976), an English sailor, in 2005 broke the world record. In her trimaran B&Q/Castorama in a time of 71days, 14hrs 18mins and 33 secs. Francis Joyon on 23 November 2007 set off in his IDEC2. He achieved a time of 57days 13 hrs 34 mins & 6secs breaking the old record by nearly 2 weeks. he held the record from 2008-2016 ( He holds many records -see list of Achievements) Clarisse Cremer (born 1989) a French professional sailor in the 2020-21 editon of the Vendee Globe set a world record, for a woman, of 87days 2hrs & 24 mins for a single-handed, non-stop, monohull circumnavigation. (see list for other results) Sources Encyclopedia of Great Explorers Wikipedia

The race to get to be first to the North Pole and then the South Pole. The American Charles Francis Hall (1821-71) made 3 expeditions and sailed further north than anyone else - he was the first person to visit the north shore of Greenland. Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) was a Norwegian explorer, inventor, scientist, diplomat and humanitarian. In 1888 led the first crossing of the Greenland interior traversing the island on cross-country skis… They reached 86 degrees 14 in his Fram expedition (1893-6). The Fram was specially built using wood reinforced with metal. He sailed his ship into the pack ice and hoped the Arctic currents would ‘float’ him to the North Pole. It remained frozen for 2 years. With a companion he tried unsuccessfully to walk the rest of the way. ( read Death and legacy) Sir James Clark Ross (1800-1862) was a British Royal Navy Officer and polar explorer was known for his 6 polar explorations of the Arctic. 2 with his uncle Sir John Ross, 4 with Sir William Parry and his own of the Antarctic (1839-1843). On June 1st 1831 a small party located the North magnetic Pole. Robert Edwin Peary Sr. (1856-1920) made 3 expeditions to the Arctic 1898-1902, 1905-6 and 1908/9. During the last one he claimed he had reached the North Pole. He paid for his trips by writing about his adventures in books and magazines. Matthew Alexander Henson (1866-1955), an African American, accompanied Robert Perry on 7 voyages to the Arctic spread over 23 years- 18 on expeditions. In the 1908/9 expedition he claimed that on April 6th 1909 he was the first of party of 6 to reach the North Pole. (Wally Herbert in 1989 published research that suggested they could have fallen 48-97 kms short due to navigational errors.) Carsten Borechgrevink (1964-1934) was an Anglo-Norwegian polar explorer and pioneer of modern Antarctica travel. The race to be first to the South Pole between Captain Robert Falcon Scott (1868-1912) and Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen 91864-1934) is in most history books. Amundsen was more organized and reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911 and went on in 12 May 1926 to be one of 16 men to reach the North Pole by the airship Norge ! Scott had already led 1 expedition to the Antarctic. Scott with his 5 friends arrived on 17 January 1912, less then 5 weeks later. They all died on the return journey. Scott kept a Diary. The diary revealed that on 17 March the sick Captain Oates walked out of the camp to die in the snow. Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton (1874-1922)was an Anglo-Irish explorer who led 3 British expeditions to the Antarctica. The Imperial Trans-Antarctica Expedition (1914-17) to cross the Antarctica from sea to sea struck disaster when the Endurance became trapped by packed ice and crushed. Lifeboats were launched to reach Elephant Island and ultimately South Georgia Island - a voyage of 720 nautical miles - his most famous exploit. In 1921 he returned to Antarctica but died of a heart attack.

The beginning on the 16th century saw explorers setting off around the world in search of trade and plunder. Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521), a Portugese explorer, is referred to being the first explorer to navigate around the earth. He never made it! He was killed on Mactan island in the Philippines. First Joao Lopes Carvalho became their leader. Then Juan Sebastian Elcano took over and successfully completed the first circumnavigation of the Earth on the *Victoria. Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596) an English explorer, sea captain, privateer, slave trader, naval officer and politician, completed the circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition from 1577-80. Received knighthood from Elizabeth 1 in 1581. He went on to become vice-admiral , second in command during the Spanish Armada in 1588 Spain branded him a pirate Sir Thomas Cavendish (1560-1592) was an English explorer and privateer known as The Navigator. Like Drake he raided the Spanish towns and ships in the Pacific and completed a circumnavigation of the globe. His major prize was the 600 ton Manila galleon Santa Ana which made him very rich - Elizabeth1 knighted him on his return. (read the notes). He died at sea while on his second global trip. William Dampier (1651-1715) was an English explorer, privateer, navigator and naturalist. He was the first person to do it 3 times. He was the first Englishman to explore parts of Australia. He was among the first to identify names of new plants, animals, foods and cooking techniques for a European audience .(read his Legacy) George Anson,1st Baron Anson ( 1697-1762) was a Royal Navy officer who rose to the rank of First Lord of the Admiralty (1757-62). He under took his global trip during the War of Jenkins’ Ear. As admiral he carried out many reforms including tightening discipline throughout the Navy. Vice-Admiral John Byron (nickname Foul Weather Jack) (1723-1786) a British Navy officer. He sailed with George Anson but his ship was wrecked in Chile. It was not until 1764-6 as a commodore of his own squadron, did he complete the globe trip.officer. Louis Antoine de Bougainville, was a French admiral and explorer who did a circumnavigation of the globe in a scientific expedition in 1763 which included the first recoded settlement on the Falkland islands. Charles Wilkes (1798- 1877) - an American naval officer, ship’s captain and explorer led the United States Exploring Expedition (1838-42), which completely encircled the globe, it was the last all-sail naval mission to do so. Sources Encyclopedia of Great Explorers. wikipedia

The attention of many potential explorers turned towards Space after 1945. Many unmanned rockets were sent up into space. In 1947 the USA launched primates into Space- many other animals followed. July 1951, Dezik and Tsygan, two dogs were launched into space by the USSR. The race to put man into space had begun. 10 years later on 12th April 1961 Yuri Gagarin, a Russian cosmonaut became the first man in space. The next race was to put the first man on the moon. On Wednesday 16th July 1969 Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket. On Sunday20th July 1969, in front of cameras for all of us back on Earth to watch, USA astronaut Neil Armstrong stepped onto the surface of the moon. Edwin ‘Buzz’ Aldrin was just steps behind. The third member of the crew Michael Collins stayed in the mother ship Columbia. The next step was a manned space programme - the Space Shuttle Transportation System (SSTS). The idea was to create a spaceship with a payload bay which would be launched by a rocket and glide back to Earth to be used again. The idea of the payload was to release/collect communication satellites. On 2nd April 1981 Robert Crippen and John Young were on board when the Space shuttle Columbia was successfully. 2020 sheet on spaceflight events during the year. On 11th July 2021 Richard Branson completed a successful suborbital space flight to reach the edge of space - the idea is to speed up journeys from continent to continent. On 13th October 2021 William Shatner, of Star Trek fame as Captain Kirk aged 90, hitched a ride aboard a suborbital spacecraft to become the oldest person to ever travel to space. Sheet on Future of Space exploration Plus First/Beginning vocabulary, 2 best copy sheets plus blank comic strip. Sources A brief Illustrated History of space exploration Encyclopedia of Great Explorers wikipedia

Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration The extensive overseas exploration was led by the Portuguese. Prince Henry, the Navigator (1394-1460) the fourth child of King John 1, was the central administrative figure in the early days sending the new caravel ships to other continents through the systematic exploration of Western Africa. Diogo Cao (c.1452-c.1486) was one of the notable navigators.He made 2 voyages along the coast of Africa in the 1480s - explored the River Congo and the coasts of the present day Angola and Namobia. On his trips he took stone pillars engraved with the Portuguese royal arms (padraos) which he erected in every new place he discovered. Bartolomeu Dias (c.1450- 1500) was a Portuguese mariner and explorer. He was the first European mariner to round the southern tip of Africa.He explored an an additional 1,000 miles of African coastline. At the time he received little recognition of his accomplishments. Vasco da Gama (1460 or 1469 - 1524) was the first European to reach India by sea. His voyage to India by way of Cape of Good Hope (1497-9) was the first to link Europe and Asia by an ocean route. Vitus Jonassen Bering, also known as Ivan Ivanovich Bering,(1681-1741) was a Danish cartographer and explorer and an officer in the Russian Navy in Russian. He lead 2 Russian expeditions - First Kamchatka and the Great Northern -exploring the north-eastern coast of the Asian Continent and the western coast on the North American continent Vitus became ill and the island he died on was named after him - Bering Island. The Strait, Sea, Glacier and Land Bridge were also named in his honour. Aleksei Ilyich Chirikov (1703-1748) was deputy to Vitus Bering during the Great Northern Expedition. He took part in creating the final map of the Russian discoveries in the Pacific Ocean. He also had islands and capes named after him. Johann Ludwig Burckhardt/ John Lewis/ Jean Louis Burckhatdt (1784-1817) a Swiss traveller, geographer and Orientalist assumed the moniker of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdullah during his travels in Arabia. He rediscovered the ruins of the ancient Nabataean city of Petra in Jordan. He visited Mecca and wrote down in his journals detailed observations of the city. Gertrude Bell (1868- 1926) was an English writer, traveller, administrator, & archaeologist who explored & mapped Syria- Palestine, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor and Arabia. Her knowledge was highly influential in British imperial policy- making. Sven Anders Hedin (1865-1952) was Swedish geographer topographer, explorer, photographer, travel writer and illustrator. He made 4 expeditions to Central Asia and visited many countries. His adventure stories for young readers and his lecture tours abroad made him world famous. ** Central Asia Atlas** published posthumously. Dame Freya Nadekine Stark DBE (1893-1993) was an Anglo-Italian explorer and travel writer.- wrote more than 24 books. First non-Arab to travel through the Southern Arabian desert.

T have started with the Vikings. By 870 AD there was a Norsemen/Viking settlement in Iceland. A 100 years later ErIk the Red, ventured across to Greenland. His son Leif Erikson, Leiv Eiriksson or Leif Ericson, also known as Leif the Lucky (c.970- c.1020) was born in Iceland, is thought to have been the first to set foot on continental North America around 1000 AD - he reached as far as Newfoundland, Canada. William of Rubruck, Willem van Ruysbroeck, Guillaume de Rubrouck or Willielmus de Rubruquis (c.1215-1295) was a Flemish Franciscan Missionary and explorer. He is best known for his travels to various parts of the Middle East and Central Asia in the 13th century,including the Mongol Empire. Marco Poplo (1254-1324) -nicknamed Milione a Venetian merchant,explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. In his book The Travels of Marco Polo (c. 1300) he gives us a comprehensive look at the mysterious culture and inner workings of the Eastern world of China, Persia, India, Japan and other Asian cities. (Map shows extent of his travels) Ibn Bayyuta (an abbeviation of his full name -See ‘His Name’) (1304-1368/9) was a Muslim Moroccan scholar and explorer who travelled extensively( 117,000 km) in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the lands of Dar al-islam.( see map). Travelling more than any other explorer in pre-modern history. Towards the end of his life he dictated an account of his journeys - The Rihla. Zheng He (1371-1433or5) originally born as Ma He -known as 'Sanbao during his service in the household of the Prince of Yan - was Chinese mariner, explore, diplomat, fleet admiral and court eunuch during China’s early Ming dynasty. He commanded expeditionary treasure voyages to South East Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Western Asia and east Africa form 1405 to 1433.

Apparently ocean exploration began around 5000BC! I am going to concentrate on 1930s+ and the creation of the firstbathysphere (from the Greek ’ bathus’ meaning ‘deep’ and ‘sphaira’ meaning ‘sphere’) which was a unique, unpowered, spherical deep-sea submersible which was lowered into the ocean by cable. It was created/designed by American Otis Barton an inventor and actor. Otis and William Beebe ( a naturalist)- made a dive off Bermuda in June 1930. The dive was conducted from the deck of a former British naval ship called the *Ready. They set the first record for deep-sea diving by descending to 600 ft. (180 m). In 1934 they improved the record to 3,028 ft ( 923m). Otis in 1949 set a new world record of 4,500 ft (1,372m) in the Pacific Ocean with the benthoscope (from the Greek ’ benthos’- meaning ‘sea bottom’ and ‘scopein’ to ’ view’). It was designed by Otis and Maurice Nelles. (Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997) - a French man and co-developer of the Aqua -Lung- deserves a mention because through his 120 television documentaries and 50 books he permitted many through viewers/readers to explore the resources of the oceans.) Jacques Piccard (1922-2008) was a Swiss oceanographer and engineer. He was known for developing submarines for studying ocean currents. In the bathyscaphe Trieste Jacques with his colleagues reached 24,000 feet. Jacques with Lt.Don, of the US Navy, on January 23, 1960 were the first to explore the deepest known part of the world’s ocean, the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench, located in the western North Pacific . The depth measured 35,813 feet (10,916 m) - a more accurate measure later 35,798 ft (10,911 m). Others have followed - James Cameron(2012 first solo descent), Victor Vescovo, Kathryn D.Sullivan and Vanessa 0’Brien (read their stories) The Deepsea Challenger was built in Australia in 2012 - construction was headed by Ron Allum ( Read development). J Sources Encyclopedia of Great Explorers Wikipedia