Such examples of “bullycide” are extreme and rare. Cases like Elaine’s grab the media’s attention, but, behind the headlines, school bullying is a continuing problem that can affect any child.

Since 1998, schools have had a legal duty to deal with bullying. But the charity ChildLine says it has been the number one issue raised by young callers to its telephone helpline for five years in a row, prompting 20,000 calls last year. Few cases lead to suicide attempts, but bullying always hurts, causing serious emotional difficulties, psychological trauma, poor school performance and long-term distress.

What is bullying?

Bullying is deliberately hurtful behaviour repeated over time. Researchers define it as cruelty that occurs at least two or three times a month. It is not simply a confrontation between equals; there’s always an imbalance of power between the bully and the bullied. Nor is it just physical aggression. Hitting, kicking, pushing or extortion may be bullying at its most obvious, but it can be verbal, such as name-calling and teasing, or more subtle and indirect, such as spreading rumours and excluding someone from social groups. Young people find mental and emotional bullying more hurtful and more difficult to deal with than direct physical assaults - name-calling can have more damaging long-term impact on a young person’s self-esteem.

It is difficult to spot. At times it can be virtually indistinguishable from harmless banter, or “rough and tumble”; at others it can verge on serious assault or actual bodily harm. And it can happen anywhere - in the classroom, in the playground, in the toilets, or on the way to and from school. In primary schools, three-quarters of bullying takes place in the playground; in secondaries, too, it usually happens outside, although it is also common in classrooms, corridors and toilets.

Are there distinct kinds of bullying?

Some studies have shown that children from ethnic minorities are especially at risk. Racist bullying is hostile or offensive behaviour directed against pupils because of their race, colour, nationality or ethnic origin. It is particularly hurtful because the victim is targeted as a representative of a group, so other pupils, their families and communities are also victims. The Department for Education and Skills says anti-bullying policies should always explicitly cover racist bullying.

Sexual bullying affects girls and boys. It may include comments about appearance, physical contact, innuendo, propositions and, at its most extreme, sexual assault. Girls and boys can also be subject to homophobic bullying, whether they are gay or not. Pupils with special educational needs or disabilities may be especially vulnerable, and need particular attention as they may be unable to articulate their experiences as well as other children.

The increase in mobile phone use has led to a new form - voice and text message bullying - particularly traumatic as it can happen at any time, day or night. At the August launch of new guidelines for schools on bullying, Education Secretary Estelle Morris singled out pupils who terrorise classmates with abusive text messages - up to one in four of reported bullying incidents in schools. The guidelines warn victims to keep the message or a record of what it said as evidence. And they say victims’

mobile operators should change their number free of charge if it is being abused.

How much bullying goes on?

Bullying happens in most schools. About half of all pupils are bullied at some time during their school lives, although only a minority suffer serious bullying. DfES research at five primary schools and 14 secondaries in England in 1997 found that more than 12 per cent of pupils were bullied at least two to three times a month.

But a recent study by the charity Kidscape of young people aged between five and 16 found that seven out of 10 had been bullied at least once, four out of 10 more than once and one in every 100 had been bullied so badly that they suffered severe problems as a result. What’s more, an estimated 30 per cent of victims don’t tell anyone they are being bullied.

Bullying is more common in primary schools. Researchers at Sheffield University in the early 1990s found that one in four primary pupils were bullied more than once or twice in any term, as were 10 per cent of children in secondaries. One in 10 primary children, and one in 25 secondary school pupils were bullied up to several times a week. By secondary school, most children work out how to cope, but those who don’t are isolated and vulnerable.

Is it a boy thing?

No - but boys are more likely to report it. It is estimated that a third of all girls and a quarter of all boys are at some time afraid of going to school because of bullying. Boys and girls tend to suffer from distinct types of bullying, with girls more likely to suffer from social exclusion and rumours; boys from more direct, face-to-face and physical harassment.

Is it increasing?

The number of calls to ChildLine about bullying has increased dramatically over its 15 years: just 753 children reported bullying in its first year, 3 per cent of the total number of calls; 20,269 called about bullying last year, 17 per cent of calls. But much of this may be due to an increase in awareness, which began to grow in the late 1980s as people realised bullying affected school performance.

The Sheffield study (see above) generated headlines that branded Britain “The bullying capital of Europe”. As awareness has increased, so have measures to combat the problem, and there are signs that bullying is declining. But as Peter Smith, leader of the Sheffield research and now professor of psychology at Goldsmiths College in London, says: “With all the anti-bullying work that’s gone on, it would be disappointing if it wasn’t having an effect.”

Who are the bullies?

Everyone is capable of bullying, and 40 per cent of children bully someone at some time. Bullies do not fit an easy stereotype - they can come from any kind of family, any social class and any cultural background. Boys and girls bully, although boys are the most common perpetrators, individually or in groups. Boys tend to be bullied by boys, but girls are bullied by girls and boys.

Contrary to popular belief, bullies rarely lack social skills; they tend to be popular, confident and assertive, often leading a cohort of “foot soldiers”. Helen Cowie, professor of psychology at Roehampton University, says they can be skilled manipulators. “It’s a myth that they are socially inadequate,” she says. “Some are good at working out how to be powerful. They know what makes people tick and how to hurt them.”

Who are the victims?

Anyone and everyone. Although often a child is bullied because he or she looks different - fatter, thinner, taller, more freckled, different coloured skin, and so on - some victims may just appear vulnerable. They may be shy or seem to lack friends. Or they may appear more secure or successful, and are seen as the teacher’s pet, boffins or smart. Some victims react passively or submissively, although 20 per cent of victims also act as bullies.

What are the signs?

These are often subtle and usually happen away from the eyes and ears of teachers. Physical signs are rarer than changes in a child’s behaviour. A sudden reluctance to go to school, for example, a fall in academic performance, being alone a lot, appearing distressed or aggressive, social withdrawal and personality changes - all these may be the result of bullying. Many schools still have a culture of silence in which children are unwilling to tell teachers what’s happening, fearing it will make things worse. Victims are more likely to tell parents than teachers, but often tell no one. It’s vital that all school staff take all reports of bullying seriously.

What does the law say?

Section 61 of the Schools Standards and Framework Act 1998 gave headteachers a legal duty to draw up an anti-bullying policy. This duty doesn’t apply in Scotland, although the Scottish Executive strongly recommends schools take similar measures.

Under the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, all pupils have the right to be educated free from the fear of intimidation, assault or harassment. The Court of Appeal in England has established that heads stand in loco parentis, with a duty to protect pupils in their charge. Schools must also ensure their policies comply with the Human Rights Act 1998, and are obliged to protect their children’s rights, including the right to education. Other rights, such as the right to a private life, and the right to be free from inhuman and degrading treatment, may also be relevant.

The Protection from Harassment Act 1997 may be valid in some cases. Making anonymous or abusive phone calls is a criminal offence under the Telecommunications Act 1994, and under the Race Relations Act 1976 schools have a duty to ensure that pupils are free from any form of racial discrimination, including harassment or violence.

How to prevent bullying

There are reams of advice. But advocates of all approaches agree a whole-school anti-bullying policy is vital to establish the framework for any strategy. Ideally, this should be devised and agreed by teachers, parents, governors, non-teaching staff and pupils. It should clearly set out how the school aims to prevent bullying and what teachers, parents and pupils should do when it occurs. Efforts should be made to ensure that everyone at the school knows the policy, that it is followed consistently, and that it is regularly monitored and updated. Maggie Taylor, head of ChildLine’s Chips programme (ChildLine in Partnership with Schools), says it is vital to have “a living policy, one that works, not one that sits on the shelf gathering dust”. Bullying should also be raised as a topic within the curriculum, under PSHE or citizenship, for example, or in drama, literature, history or RE lessons, or during assemblies. This can reinforce a school’s anti-bullying ethos.

Strategies

Sometimes a teacher can resolve bullying incidents with a simple word, but schools need strategies that will tackle the problem in the long-term - although no single plan is always successful. Some may work better in particular schools than others, and with particular age groups. The golden rule, according to ChildLine’s Maggie Taylor, is to involve the pupils. “Involving young people as part of the solution, not part of the problem, seems to be far more effective.”

Proactive strategies include:

* Identifying danger spots in corridors and playgrounds, and improving supervision.

* Raising awareness through posters and leaflets.

* Introducing assertiveness training for potential victims.

* Setting up a praise and reward systems to reinforce good behaviour.

* Using circle time sessions to get pupils’ views and help them develop listening and empathising skills, as well as building a sense of community.

* Introducing peer support schemes, enlisting the involvement of the usually silent majority, by training pupils to offer emotional support to their peers.

Some reactive aids:

* Bully boxes, where pupils can place anonymous reports of bullying.

* Bully “courts” and councils that allow pupils to help decide what should happen to peers who are accused of bullying.

* Counselling.

* Peer counsellingactive listening. Older pupils are trained to help younger ones.Requires good training and support.

* Peer mediation. Pupils are trained to act as mediators in a conflict.

* “No blame” and “shared concern”. Here the aim is for the bully or bullies to be made aware of the victim’s distress, to accept responsibility for their actions, and to help find solutions.

* Punishment - sanctions may be needed if bullying is serious or persistent. The DfES stresses that permanent exclusion can be justified in violent cases.

Teachers, pupils and parents

All teachers should help to draw up the school’s policy and ensure their classrooms have an anti-bullying ethos. Individual teachers can adopt some of the strategies outlined above to help build positive relationships between children. Reports of bullying should be taken seriously and never dismissed without further enquiries.

The most important measure is to make sure children feel able to tell someone. Pupils need to know how a teacher will react to their complaints; that they will be dealt with sympathetically and fairly. The message that being bullied is not their fault must also be reinforced. Parents must also feel able to come to teachers if they think there’s a problem.

Are schools doing enough?

There seems to be more and more publicity about bullying at school and, often, schools are criticised for failing to deal with it. But Maggie Taylor says they deserve special praise. “Most schools are brave for starting the process,” she says. “They are saying, ‘Yeah, we’ve got a problem’. And you rarely hear businesses saying that.”